Definitions of Attitude Essay

An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment, but there is debate about precise definitions. Eagly and Chaiken, for example, define an attitude â€Å"a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.†[2] Though it is sometimes common to define an attitude as affect toward an object, affect (i.e., discrete emotions or overall arousal) is generally understood to be distinct from attitude as a measure of favorability.[3] This definition of attitude allows for one’s evaluation of an attitude object to vary from extremely negative to extremely positive, but also admits that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object meaning that they might at different times express both positive and negative attitude toward the same object. This has led to some discussion of whether individual can hold multiple attitudes toward the same object.[4] Whether attitudes are explicit (i.e., deliberately formed) versus implicit (i.e., subconscious) has been a topic of considerable research. Research on implicit attitudes, which are generally unacknowledged or outside of awareness, uses sophisticated methods involving people’s response times to stimuli to show that implicit attitudes exist (perhaps in tandem with explicit attitudes of the same object). Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people’s behavior, though in different ways. They tend not to be strongly associated with each other, although in some cases they are. The relationship between them is poorly understood. Jung’s definition Attitude is one of Jung’s 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types. Jung’s definition of attitude is a â€Å"readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way† (Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 687). Attitudes very often come in pairs, one conscious and the other unconscious. Within this broad definition Jung defines several attitudes. The main (but not only) attitude dualities that Jung defines are the following. †¢ Consciousness and the unconscious. The â€Å"presence of two attitudes is extremely frequent, one conscious and the other unconscious. This means that consciousness has a constellation of contents different from that of the unconscious, a duality particularly evident in neurosis† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 687). †¢ Extraversion and introversion. This pair is so elementary to Jung’s theory of types that he labeled them the â€Å"attitude-types†. †¢ Rational and irrational attitudes. â€Å"I conceive reason as an attitude† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 785). †¢ The rational attitude subdivides into the thinking and feeling psychological functions, each with its attitude. †¢ The irrational attitude subdivides into the sensing and intuition psychological functions, each with its attitude. â€Å"There is thus a typical thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuitive attitude† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 691). †¢ Individual and social attitudes. Many of the latter are â€Å"isms†. In addition, Jung discusses the abstract attitude. â€Å"When I take an abstract attitude†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 679). Abstraction is contrasted with concretism. â€Å"CONCRETISM. By this I mean a peculiarity of thinking and feeling which is the antithesis of abstraction† (Jung, [1921] 1971: par. 696). For example: â€Å"I hate his attitude for being Sarcastic.† Pasted from The classic, tripartite view offered by William J. McGuire[9] is that an attitude contains cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Empirical research, however, fails to support clear distinctions between thoughts, emotions, and behavioral intentions associated with a particular attitude.[10] A criticism of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it requires cognitive, affective, and behavioral associations of an attitude to be consistent, but this may be implausible. Thus some views of attitude structure see the cognitive and behavioral components as derivative of affect or affect and behavior as derivative of underlying beliefs.[11] Despite debate about the particular structure of attitudes, there is considerable evidence that attitudes reflect more than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative. Attitudes also have other characteristics, such as importance, certainty, or accessibility (measures of attitude strength) and associated knowledge.[12] There is also considerable interest in inter-attitudinal structure, which connects different attitudes to one another and to more underlying psychological structures, such as values or ideology.[13] Attitude function Another classic view of attitudes is that attitudes serve particular functions for individuals. That is, researchers have tried to understand why individuals hold particular attitudes or why they hold attitudes in general by considering how attitudes affect the individuals who hold them.[14] Daniel Katz, for example, writes that attitudes can serve â€Å"instrumental, adjustive or utilitarian,† â€Å"ego-defensive,† â€Å"value-expressive,† or â€Å"knowledge† functions.[15] The functional view of attitudes suggests that in order for attitudes to change (e.g., via persuasion), appeals must be made to the function(s) that a particular attitude serves for the individual. As an example, the â€Å"ego-defensive† function might be used to influence the racially prejudicial attitudes of an individual who sees themselves as open-minded and tolerant. By appealing to that individual’s image of themselves as tolerant and open-minded, it may be possible to change their prejudicial attitudes to be more consistent with their self-concept. Similarly, a persuasive message that threatens self-image is much more likely to be rejected.[16] Attitude formation According to Doob (1947), learning can account for most of the attitudes we hold. Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are mainly responsible for formation of attitude. Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes – but believes that they may do so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs and values. As with any type of heritability, to determine if a particular trait has a basis in our genes, twin studies are used.[17] The most famous example of such a theory is Dissonance-reduction theory, associated with Leon Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and behavior) are at odds an individual may adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a behavior).[18] Other theories include balance theory, origincally proposed by Heider (1958), and the self-perception theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.[19] Attitude change Main article: Attitude change Attitudes can be changed through persuasion and an important domain of research on attitude change focuses on responses to communication. Experimental research into the factors that can affect the persuasiveness of a message include: 1. Target Characteristics: These are characteristics that refer to the person who receives and processes a message. One such trait is intelligence – it seems that more intelligent people are less easily persuaded by one-sided messages. Another variable that has been studied in this category is self-esteem. Although it is sometimes thought that those higher in self-esteem are less easily persuaded, there is some evidence that the relationship between self-esteem and persuasibility is actually curvilinear, with people of moderate self-esteem being more easily persuaded than both those of high and low self-esteem levels (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). The mind frame and mood of the target also plays a role in this process. 2. Source Characteristics: The major source characteristics are expertise, trustworthiness and interpersonal attraction or attractiveness. The credibility of a perceived message has been found to be a key variable here; if one reads a report about health and believes it came from a professional medical journal, one may be more easily persuaded than if one believes it is from a popular newspaper. Some psychologists have debated whether this is a long-lasting effect and Hovland and Weiss (1951) found the effect of telling people that a message came from a credible source disappeared after several weeks (the so-called â€Å"sleeper effect†). Whether there is a sleeper effect is controversial. Perceived wisdom is that if people are informed of the source of a message before hearing it, there is less likelihood of a sleeper effect than if they are told a message and then told its source. 3. Message Characteristics: The nature of the message plays a role in persuasion. Sometimes presenting both sides of a story is useful to help change attitudes. When people are not motivated to process the message, simply the number of arguments presented in a persuasive message will influence attitude change, such that a greater number of arguments will produce greater attitude change.[20] 4. Cognitive Routes: A message can appeal to an individual’s cognitive evaluation to help change an attitude. In the central route to persuasion the individual is presented with the data and motivated to evaluate the data and arrive at an attitude changing conclusion. In the peripheral route to attitude change, the individual is encouraged to not look at the content but at the source. This is commonly seen in modern advertisements that feature celebrities. In some cases, physician, doctors or experts are used. In other cases film stars are used for their attractiveness. Emotion and attitude change Emotion is a common component in persuasion, social influence, and attitude change. Much of attitude research emphasized the importance of affective or emotion components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the way we think, about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. Attitudes and attitude objects are functions of cognitive, affective and conative components. Attitudes are part of the brain’s associative networks, the spider-like structures residing in long term memory that consist of affective and cognitive nodes. By activating an affective or emotion node, attitude change may be possible, though affective and cognitive components tend to be intertwined. In primarily affective networks, it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to persuasion and attitude change. Affective forecasting, otherwise known as intuition or the prediction of emotion, also impacts attitude change. Research suggests that predicting emotions is an important component of decision making, in addition to the cognitive processes. How we feel about an outcome may override purely cognitive rationales. In terms of research methodology, the challenge for researchers is measuring emotion and subsequent impacts on attitude. Since we cannot see into the brain, various models and measurement tools have been constructed to obtain emotion and attitude information. Measures may include the use of physiological cues like facial expressions, vocal changes, and other body rate measures. For instance, fear is associated with raised eyebrows, increased heart rate and increase body tension (Dillard, 1994). Other methods include concept or network mapping, and using primes or word cues in the era . Components of emotion appeals Any discrete emotion can be used in a persuasive appeal; this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, fear, blue, disturbed, haunted,and anger. Fear is one of the most studied emotional appeals in communication and social influence research. Important consequences of fear appeals and other emotion appeals include the possibility of reactance which may lead to either message rejections or source rejection and the absence of attitude change. As the EPPM suggests, there is an optimal emotion level in motivating attitude change. If there is not enough motivation, an attitude will not change; if the emotional appeal is overdone, the motivation can be paralyzed thereby preventing attitude change. Emotions perceived as negative or containing threat are often studied more than perceived positive emotions like humor. Though the inner-workings of humor are not agreed upon, humor appeals may work by creating incongruities in the mind. Recent research has looked at the impact of humor on the processing of political messages. While evidence is inconclusive, there appears to be potential for targeted attitude change is receivers with low political message involvement. Important factors that influence the impact of emotion appeals include self efficacy, attitude accessibility, issue involvement, and message/source features. Self efficacy is a perception of one’s own human agency; in other words, it is the perception of our own ability to deal with a situation. It is an important variable in emotion appeal messages because it dictates a person’s ability to deal with both the emotion and the situation. For example, if a person is not self-efficacious about their ability to impact the global environment, they are not likely to change their attitude or behavior about global warming. Dillard (1994) suggests that message features such as source non-verbal communication, message content, and receiver differences can impact the emotion impact of fear appeals. The characteristics of a message are important because one message can elicit different levels of emotion for different people. Thus, in terms of emotion appeals messages, one size does not fit all. Attitude accessibility refers to the activation of an attitude from memory in other words, how readily available is an attitude about an object, issue, or situation. Issue involvement is the relevance and salience of an issue or situation to an individual. Issue involvement has been correlated with both attitude access and attitude strength. Past studies conclude accessible attitudes are more resistant to change. Attitude-behavior relationship This section requires expansion. (September 2012) The effects of attitudes on behaviors represents a significant research enterprise within psychology. Two theoretical approaches have dominated this research: the theory of reasoned action[21] and, its theoretical descendant, the theory of planned behavior,[22] both of which are associated with Icek Ajzen. Both of these theories describe the link between attitude and behavior as a deliberative process, with an individual actively choosing to engage in an attitude-related behavior. An alternative model, called MODE for â€Å"Motivation and Opportunity as DEterminants† was proposed by Russell H. Fazio, which focuses on motivations and opportunities for deliberative attitude-related behavior to occur. MODE is a Dual process theory that expects deliberative attitude-behavior linkages – like those modeled by the theory of planned behavior – only occur when individuals have motivation to reflect upon their own attitudes. Pasted from Theory of reasoned action From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The theory of reasoned action (TRA), is a model for the prediction of behavioral intention, spanning predictions of attitude and predictions of behavior. The subsequent separation of behavioral intention from behavior allows for explanation of limiting factors on attitudinal influence (Ajzen, 1980). The Theory of Reasoned Action was developed by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen (1975, 1980), derived from previous research that started out as the theory of attitude, which led to the study of attitude and behavior. The theory was â€Å"born largely out of frustration with traditional attitude–behavior research, much of which found weak correlations between attitude measures and performance of volitional behaviors† (Hale, Householder & Greene, 2003, p. 259). Pasted from Definition and example Derived from the social psychology setting, the theory of reasoned action (TRA) was proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein (1975 & 1980). The components of TRA are three general constructs: behavioral intention (BI), attitude (A), and subjective norm (SN). TRA suggests that a person’s behavioral intention depends on the person’s attitude about the behavior and subjective norms (BI = A + SN). If a person intends to do a behavior then it is likely that the person will do it. Behavioral intention measures a person’s relative strength of intention to perform a behavior. Attitude consists of beliefs about the consequences of performing the behavior multiplied by his or her evaluation of these consequences. (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) Subjective norm is seen as a combination of perceived expectations from relevant individuals or groups along with intentions to comply with these expectations. In other words, â€Å"the person’s perception that most people who are important to him or her think he should or should not perform the behavior in question† (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). To put the definition into simple terms: a person’s volitional (voluntary) behavior is predicted by his/her attitude toward that behavior and how he/she thinks other people would view them if they performed the behavior. A person’s attitude, combined with subjective norms, forms his/her behavioral intention. Fishbein and Ajzen say, though, that attitudes and norms are not weighted equally in predicting behavior. â€Å"Indeed, depending on the individual and the situation, these factors might be very different effects on behavioral intention; thus a weight is associated with each of these factors in the predictive formula of the theory. For example, you might be the kind of person who cares little for what others think. If this is the case, the subjective norms would carry little weight in predicting your behavior† (Miller, 2005, p. 127). Miller (2005) defines each of the three components of the theory as follows and uses the example of embarking on a new exercise program to illustrate the theory: †¢ Attitudes: the sum of beliefs about a particular behavior weighted by evaluations of these beliefs ââ€"‹ You might have the beliefs that exercise is good for your health, that exercise makes you look good, that exercise takes too much time, and that exercise is uncomfortable. Each of these beliefs can be weighted (e.g., health issues might be more important to you than issues of time and comfort). †¢ Subjective norms: looks at the influence of people in one’s social environment on his/her behavioral intentions; the beliefs of people, weighted by the importance one attributes to each of their opinions, will influence one’s behavioral intention ââ€"‹ You might have some friends who are avid exercisers and constantly encourage you to join them. However, your spouse might prefer a more sedentary lifestyle and scoff at those who work out. The beliefs of these people, weighted by the importance you attribute to each of their opinions, will influence your behavioral intention to exercise, which will lead to your behavior to exercise or not exercise. †¢ Behavioral intention: a function of both attitudes toward a behavior and subjective norms toward that behavior, which has been found to predict actual behavior. ââ€"‹ Your attitudes about exercise combined with the subjective norms about exercise, each with their own weight, will lead you to your intention to exercise (or not), which will then lead to your actual behavior. Pasted from In psychology, the theory of planned behavior is a theory about the link between attitudes and behavior. The concept was proposed by Icek Ajzen to improve on the predictive power of the theory of reasoned action by including perceived behavioural control.[1] It is one of the most predictive persuasion theories. It has been applied to studies of the relations among beliefs, attitudes, behavioral intentions and behaviors in various fields such as advertising, public relations, advertising campaigns and healthcare. The theory states that attitude toward behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual’s behavioral intentions and behaviors. Pasted from Extension from the theory of reasoned action The theory of planned behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985 through his article â€Å"From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior.† The theory was developed from the theory of reasoned action, which was proposed by Martin Fishbein together with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The theory of reasoned action was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theories, expectancy-value theories, consistency theories,[2] and attribution theory.[3] According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivation) and they are more likely to do so. A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many studies.[4] A counter-argument against the high relationship between behavioral intention and actual behavior has also been proposed, as the results of some studies show that, because of circumstantial limitations, behavioral intention does not always lead to actual behavior. Namely, since behavioral intention cannot be the exclusive determinant of behavior where an individual’s control over the behavior is incomplete, Ajzen introduced the theory of planned behavior by adding a new component, â€Å"perceived behavioral control.† By this, he extended the theory of reasoned action to cover non-volitional behaviors for predicting behavioral intention and actual behavior. Extension of self-efficacy In addition to attitudes and subjective norms (which make the theory of reasoned action), the theory of planned behavior adds the concept of perceived behavioral control, which originates from self-efficacy theory (SET). Self-efficacy was proposed by Bandura in 1977, which came from social cognitive theory. According to Bandura, expectations such as motivation, performance, and feelings of frustration associated with repeated failures determine effect and behavioral reactions. Bandura (1986)[full citation needed] separated expectations into two distinct types: self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. He defined self-efficacy as the conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes. The outcome expectancy refers to a person’s estimation that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes. He states that self-efficacy is the most important precondition for behavioral change, since it determines the initiation of coping behavior. Previous investigations have shown that peoples’ behavior is strongly influenced by their confidence in their ability to perform that behavior (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, & Howells, 1980).[full citation needed] As the self-efficacy theory contributes to explaining various relationships between beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behavior, the SET has been widely applied to health-related fields such as physical activity and mental health in preadolescents,[5] and exercise.[6] Concepts of key variables Behavioral beliefs and attitude toward behavior †¢ Behavioral belief: an individual’s belief about consequences of particular behavior. The concept is based on the subjective probability that the behavior will produce a given outcome. †¢ Attitude toward behavior: an individual’s positive or negative evaluation of self-performance of the particular behavior. The concept is the degree to which performance of the behavior is positively or negatively valued. It is determined by the total set of accessible behavioral beliefs linking the behavior to various outcomes and other attributes. Normative beliefs and subjective norms †¢ Normative belief: an individual’s perception about the particular behavior, which is influenced by the judgment of significant others (e.g., parents, spouse, friends, teachers).[7] †¢ Subjective norm: an individual’s perception of social normative pressures, or relevant others’ beliefs that he or she should or should not perform such behavior. Control beliefs and perceived behavioral control †¢ Perceived behavioral control: an individual’s perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behavior (Ajzen, 1988).[full citation needed] It is assumed that perceived behavioral control is determined by the total set of accessible control beliefs. †¢ Control beliefs: an individual’s beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate or impede performance of the behavior (Ajzen, 2001).[full citation needed] The concept of perceived behavioral control is conceptually related to self-efficacy. Behavioral intention and behavior †¢ Behavioral intention: an indication of an individual’s readiness to perform a given behavior. It is assumed to be an immediate antecedent of behavior (Ajzen, 2002b).[full citation needed] It is based on attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control, with each predictor weighted for its importance in relation to the behavior and population of interest. †¢ Behavior: an individual’s observable response in a given situation with respect to a given target. Ajzen said a behavior is a function of compatible intentions and perceptions of behavioral control in that perceived behavioral control is expected to moderate the effect of intention on behavior, such that a favorable intention produces the behavior only when perceived behavioral control is strong. Pasted from Cognitive dissonance is a term used in modern psychology to describe the feeling of discomfort when simultaneously holding two or more conflicting cognitions: ideas, beliefs, values or emotional reactions. In a state of dissonance, people may sometimes feel â€Å"disequilibrium†: frustration, hunger, dread, guilt, anger, embarrassment, anxiety, etc.[1] The phrase was coined by Leon Festinger in his 1956 book When Prophecy Fails, which chronicled the followers of a UFO cult as reality clashed with their fervent belief in an impending apocalypse.[2][3] Festinger subsequently published a book called â€Å"A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance†, published in 1957, in which he outlines the theory. Cognitive dissonance is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology. The theory of cognitive dissonance in social psychology proposes that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by altering existing cognitions, adding new ones to create a consistent belief system, or alternatively by reducing the importance of any one of the dissonant elements.[1] It is the distressing mental state that people feel when they â€Å"find themselves doing things that don’t fit with what they know, or having opinions that do not fit with other opinions they hold.† [4] A key assumption is that people want their expectations to meet reality, creating a sense of equilibrium. [5] Likewise, another assumption is that a person will avoid situations or information sources that give rise to feelings of uneasiness, or dissonance.[1] Cognitive dissonance theory explains human behavior by positing that people have a bias to seek consonance between their expectations and reality. According to Festinger, people engage in a process he termed â€Å"dissonance reduction†, which can be achieved in one of three ways: lowering the importance of one of the discordant factors, adding consonant elements, or changing one of the dissonant factors.[6] This bias sheds light on otherwise puzzling, irrational, and even destructive behavior. Pasted from The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion[1] is a dual process theory of how attitudes are formed and changed that was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in the early 1980s (see also attitude change). The model proposes an â€Å"elaboration continuum,† which determines the extent to which arguments are processed and evaluated (high elaboration) versus peripheral cues such as source expertise or attractiveness (low elaboration) shape persuasion. The model is similar to the Heuristic-systematic model of information processing developed around the same time by Shelly Chaiken. Pasted from Central route Central route processes require the audience to use a great deal more thought, and therefore are likely to predominate under conditions that promote high elaboration. Central route processes involve careful scrutiny of a persuasive communication (e.g., a speech, an advertisement, etc.) to determine the merits of the arguments. Under these conditions, a person’s unique cognitive responses to the message determine the persuasive outcome. If a person evaluates a message centrally as reliable, well-constructed, and convincing, it will often be received as favorable even if it is contrasting to the receiver’s original stance on the message. So, if favorable thoughts are a result of the elaboration process, the message will most likely be accepted (i.e., an attitude congruent with the message’s position will emerge), and if unfavorable thoughts are generated while considering the merits of presented arguments, the message will most likely be rejected.[1] In order for the message to be centrally processed, a person must have the ability and motivation to do so. In order for the receiver to have motivation to centrally process a message it must have relevance to him or her. Peripheral route Peripheral route processes, on the other hand, does not involve elaboration of the message through extensive cognitive processing of the merits of the actual argument presented. These processes often rely on environmental characteristics of the message, like the perceived credibility of the source, quality of the way in which it is presented, the attractiveness of the source, or the catchy slogan that contains the message.[1] It is also frequently used when the argument presented is weak and/or lacking evidence. The peripheral route is a mental shortcut process that accepts or rejects a message based on irrelevant cues as opposed to actively thinking about the issue [2] The peripheral route is a process in which outside influences affect the decision making process. This is also the process used when the audience is unable to process the message. This could be from having a message that is too complex, or an audience that is immature. The most common influences would be factors such as reward. Reward could be objects like food, sex or money. These inducements create a quick change in mind and action. Celebrity status along with likability and expertise are other factors in the peripheral process that have become more popular. Humor within messages is a dominant influence in this process as well. Appearance also has the ability to gain the attention of individuals which can create an interest in the topic, but will not create a strong change in individuals. The goal of the peripheral process is to create change, this change can be weak and even temporary as opposed to the strong and lasting change in the central route. Choice of route The two factors that most influence which route an individual will take in a persuasive situation are motivation (strong desire to process the message; e.g., Petty & Cacioppo, 1979) and ability (actually being capable of critical evaluation; e.g., Petty, Wells, & Brock, 1976). Which route is taken is determined by the extent of elaboration. Both motivational and ability factors determine elaboration. Motivational factors include (among others) the personal relevance of the message topic, accountability, and a person’s â€Å"need for cognition† (their innate desire to enjoy thinking). Ability factors include the availability of cognitive resources (e.g., the presence or absence of time pressures or distractions) or relevant knowledge needed to carefully scrutinize the arguments. The ability to understand the message that is being communicated. Distractions such as noise can affect the ability for one to process a message. An example of noise would be a persuader trying to share his message in a room full of crying babies, this would make it extremely difficult for listeners to concentrate on the message being given. Noise that you can’t physically control would be if a persuaders listeners could concentrate on the message because they had something else on their mind which was more important than the persuaders message like a death in the family, or problems they’re having in their relationship. Another example of this is in children. A child will change their behavior because his or her parent told them to do so rather than taking the information given and processing it. As that child grows up, however, he or she will have a higher cognitive complexity, and therefore be able to process the information of the situation centrally in order to draw a conclusion of their own. (O’Keefe) The subject’s general education level, as well as their education and experience with the topic at hand greatly affect their ability to be persuaded. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a mixture of central and peripheral route processes will guide information processing. There are benefits and consequences for both processes. An individual who disagrees with the message being presented will likely have a boomerang effect if he or she centrally processes the message and bounce farther away from the speaker’s goal. If that same situation takes place, but the message is peripherally processed, a weak change will not have as large of a negative effect on that individual. (O’Keefe) Type of Elaboration: Objective Versus Biased Thinking Attitude, motivation, and ability strongly increase the likelihood that a message will be ingrained in the minds’ of listeners. Although, as the social judgement theory suggests, they may not process the information in a fair, objective way. Attitudes are general evaluations that people hold that correspond with how they perceive themselves in relation to the world they live in. One way to influence attitude is to give peripheral cues. Peripheral cues can be things that lead to good or punishing or they can invoke provide guiding rules or inferences. These are often effective because they cause the audience to draw the conclusion themselves, therefore, making them believe it is their own idea, so they buy in to it. (Griffin) Many of the evaluations are based on Cognitive intelligence, behavior, and guidance. Given a basic understanding of an individuals attitudes one can interpret which type of elaboration would better suit the situation. There are two types of elaboration a listener can possess: (Biased elaboration, Objective elaboration) Elaboration can lead to both positive and negative results depending on the audience who is receiving the message. Individuals who have a Pre conception of a certain topic are going to be much harder to persuade oppose to an individual who has an open mind about a topic where only the facts hold truth. Biased Elaboration: Top-down thinking in which predetermined conclusions color the supporting data. This is used on people who likely already have their minds made up about a situation before the message is ever conveyed to them (Cacioppo) Ex. Someone who has had a negative personal experience with motorcycles will probably have made up their minds and be biased in the way they process the message.[2] Objective Elaboration: Bottom-up thinking in which facts are scrutinized without bias; seeking truth wherever it might lead. These listeners let the facts speak for themselves and approach the message with an unbias mind. Which leads to a true unbiased result or opinion. (Cacioppo) Ex. A person who is listening to a motorcycle salesman and already has a mindset about them. This person would let the facts influence their attitude.[2] Testing the Elaboration Likelihood Model To design a way to test the Elaboration Likelihood Model, it is crucial to determine whether an argument is universally seen as strong or weak. If an argument is inconsistent in opinions of strength, the results of persuasion will be inconsistent. A strong argument is defined by Petty and Cacioppo as â€Å"one containing arguments such that when subjects are instructed to think about the message, the thoughts they generate are fundamentally favorable† (Griffin). In general, a weak argument that is universally viewed as weak will entice unfavorable results if the subject is instructed to and is in an appropriate environment to consider it logically (or when testing the central route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model). In turn, a strong argument under similar circumstances will return favorable results. The test arguments must also be rated for ease of understanding, complexity, and familiarity. To scientifically study either route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model, the arguments themselves must be designed to have consistent results.[3] Conclusions of the Elaboration Likelihood Model In addition to these factors, the ELM also makes several unique proposals.[1] It is suggested that attitudes formed under high elaboration, the central route, are stronger than those formed under low elaboration. This means that this level of persuasion is stable over time and is less susceptible to decay or any type of counter-persuasion. Attitudes formed under low elaboration, the peripheral route, are more likely to cause a short term attitude change. Variables in ELM routes can serve multiple roles in a persuasive setting depending on other contextual factors (examples below). Under high elaboration, a given variable (e.g., source expertise) can either serve as an argument (â€Å"If Einstein agrees with the theory of relativity, then this is a strong reason for me to as well†) or as a biasing factor (â€Å"if an expert agrees with this position it is probably good, so let me see what else agrees with this conclusion† — at the expense of information that may d isagree with it).[4] Under conditions of low elaboration, a given variable can act as a peripheral cue. This could happen, e.g., through the use of an â€Å"experts are always right† heuristic. Note that, while this is similar to the Einstein example presented above, this is a simple shortcut, which, unlike the Einstein example, does not require careful thought. Under conditions of moderate elaboration, a given variable can serve to direct the extent of information processing: â€Å"If an expert agrees with this position, I should really listen to what (s)he has to say†. Interestingly, when a variable affects elaboration, this can increase or decrease persuasion, depending on the strength of the arguments presented. If the arguments are strong, enhancing elaboration will enhance persuasion. If the arguments are weak, however, more thought will undermine persuasion. More recent adaptations of the ELM (e.g.)[5] have added an additional role that variables can serve. They can affect the extent to which a person has confidence in, and thus trusts, their own thoughts in response to a message (self-validation role). Keeping with our source expertise example, a person may feel that â€Å"if an expert presented this information, it is probably correct, and thus I can trust that my reactions to it are informative with respect to my attitude†. Note that this role, because of its metacognitive nature, only occurs under conditions that promote high elaboration. Pasted from Attitudes Attitudes are evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people. Attitudes can be positive or negative. Explicit attitudes are conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence decisions and behavior. Attitudes can include up to three components: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral. Example: Jane believes that smoking is unhealthy, feels disgusted when people smoke around her, and avoids being in situations where people smoke. Dimensions of Attitudes Researchers study three dimensions of attitude: strength, accessibility, and ambivalence. †¢ Attitude strength: Strong attitudes are those that are firmly held and that highly influence behavior. Attitudes that are important to a person tend to be strong. Attitudes that people have a vested interest in also tend to be strong. Furthermore, people tend to have stronger attitudes about things, events, ideas, or people they have considerable knowledge and information about. †¢ Attitude accessibility: The accessibility of an attitude refers to the ease with which it comes to mind. In general, highly accessible attitudes tend to be stronger. †¢ Attitude ambivalence: Ambivalence of an attitude refers to the ratio of positive and negative evaluations that make up that attitude. The ambivalence of an attitude increases as the positive and negative evaluations get more and more equal. The Influence of Attitudes on Behavior Behavior does not always reflect attitudes. However, attitudes do determine behavior in some situations: †¢ If there are few outside influences, attitude guides behavior. Example: Wyatt has an attitude that eating junk food is unhealthy. When he is at home, he does not eat chips or candy. However, when he is at parties, he indulges in these foods. †¢ Behavior is guided by attitudes specific to that behavior. Example: Megan might have a general attitude of respect toward seniors, but that would not prevent her from being disrespectful to an elderly woman who cuts her off at a stop sign. However, if Megan has an easygoing attitude about being cut off at stop signs, she is not likely to swear at someone who cuts her off. †¢ Behavior is guided by attitudes that come to mind easily. Example: Ron has an attitude of mistrust and annoyance toward telemarketers, so he immediately hangs up the phone whenever he realizes he has been contacted by one. The Influence of Behavior on Attitudes Behavior also affects attitudes. Evidence for this comes from the foot-in-the-door phenomenon and the effect of role playing. The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon People tend to be more likely to agree to a difficult request if they have first agreed to an easy one. This is called the foot-in-the-door phenomenon. Example: Jill is more likely to let an acquaintance borrow her laptop for a day if he first persuades her to let him borrow her textbook for a day. Social Norms and Social Roles Social norms are a society’s rules about appropriate behavior. Norms exist for practically every kind of situation. Some norms are explicit and are made into laws, such as the norm While driving, you may not run over a pedestrian. Other norms are implicit and are followed unconsciously, such as You may not wear a bikini to class. Social roles are patterns of behavior that are considered appropriate for a person in a particular context. For example, gender roles tell people how a particular society expects men and women to behave. A person who violates the requirements of a role tends to feel uneasy or to be censured by others. Role requirements can change over time in a society. The Effect of Role Playing and the â€Å"Prison Study† People tend to internalize roles they play, changing their attitudes to fit the roles. In the 1970s, the psychologist Philip Zimbardo conducted a famous study called the prison study, which showed how roles influence people. Zimbardo assigned one group of college student volunteers to play the role of prison guards in a simulated prison environment. He provided these students with uniforms, clubs, and whistles and told them to enforce a set of rules in the prison. He assigned another group of students to play the role of prisoners. Zimbardo found that as time went on, some of the â€Å"guard† students became increasingly harsh and domineering. The â€Å"prisoner† students also internalized their role. Some broke down, while others rebelled or became passively resigned to the situation. The internalization of roles by the two groups of students was so extreme that Zimbardo had to terminate the study after only six days.

Expansion in the 1840’s to 1850’s

EXPANSION IN THE 1840’S AND 1850’S 1. As our nation expanded from 1845-1860 political leaders could not solve, evade or escape the question as to whether or not to allow the expansion of slavery into the territories. MANIFEST DESTINY- had overtaken American justification for expansion- The US had the right and the obligation to expand to the Pacific. 1846- Americans fought an 18 month war against Mexico that resulted in the acquisition of more than half of Mexico— one third of the current US. — 2. JOHN C. CALHOUN- FROM SOUTH CAROLINA Calhoun had been vice president under John Quincy Adams in 1825 and Andrew Jackson in 1829. He split with Jackson and did not become his VP in 1833. The split was over THE TARIFF OF ABOMINATIONS†- a tariff passed in 1828, as Adams was leaving office, that levied very high protective tariffs on imports for the sole purpose of protecting American manufactures. It made foreign goods too expensive for the South to buy. THIS WOULD LEAD TO EUROPE BUYING LESS OF THE SOUTH’S AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN RETURN. At the time of the War of 1812 until 1828 Calhoun was a strong NATIONALIST. But as he saw more and more how the South was being treated he made a complete turn and became a FANATICAL REGIONALIST. As VP, after the Tariff of 1828 he wrote a pamphlet in which he called for nullification of the tariff by Southern states on the grounds that it was unconstitutional. This Theory of Nullification was first issued by Thomas Jefferson over the debates on the Const. and the role of the Federal vs. State Governments. Jefferson and Madison had tried to put the theory into effect with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions in 1798, in which they declared that the Alien and Sedition Acts (forced in by Adams) violated the Bill of Rights- EXPLAIN THE ACTS and were unconstitutional and could be nullified by any state that chose to. Calhoun had little support for nullification. Jackson promised tariff relief. But the Tariff of 1832 provided little reform. Calhoun resigned as VP in 1832 and was elected to the Senate from S. Carolina. S. Carolina called a special convention that on Nov. 24,1832 passed the Ordinance of Nullification forbidding tariff collection in the State. When Calhoun’s nullification theory was presented to the Senate it was argued that NOT ONLY COULD A STATE NULLIFY AND UNCONSTITUTIONAL LAW BUT THAT IT COULD ALSO, AS A LAST RESORT, SECEDE FROM THE UNION. —–1832†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Daniel Webster, a Senator from Mass. , defended the powers of the federal government and said: â€Å"Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable. † Nullification now divided the nation over the issue of STATES RIGHTS- the will of a state vs the law of the nation. WHAT CALHOUN WAS REALLY FIGHTING FOR WAS PROTECTION OF SLAVERY WHICH THEY FEARED COULD BE ABOLISHED BY A NORTHERN CONGRESS. That is why as early as 1832 it was important to Calhoun and his supporters to try to have the doctrine of States Rights override the National will- Calhoun saw the will of the nation being controlled by the Northern industrialists. THIS IS PROOF THAT TO THE SOUTH THE ISSUE OF SLAVERY WAS BOTH ECONOMIC AND CONSTITUTIONAL. Jackson, on Dec. 19,1832, declared the Tariff to be constitutional and denied the right of a state to block federal law. He threatened armed intervention to collect tariffs. Congress passed THE FORCE ACT- empowering the president to use force to collect tariffs. The South nullified the Force Act, but compromise was soon reached with a new tariff. BUT- THE ISSUE OF STATES RIGHTS WOULD NOT GO AWAY. The Mexican war- Northern Democrats were willing to annex Texas, a Southern state, since they expected Southern support for Oregon. The 1844 Democratic platform included a pledge to control the whole area of Oregon- US and Britain jointly occupied the area from the 42 parallel to 54,40. The area spread from the present day northern borders of California and Nevada to the Southern border of Russian Alaska. From 1818 there was joint occupation. More Americans were pouring into the area and they wanted to become part of the US. 1845 Polk recommended termination of the joint occupation and our taking control of the entire area. The question would whether the Southern (Tenn. ) president and his Southern colleagues would support free territory in Oregon as strongly as they supported slave territory in Texas. The answer was NO- Polk was willing to go to war with Spain for Texas, AND ALL THE OTHER LAND, but not with England over Oregon. So a compromise was reached with Britain at the 49th parallel. 2 Northern Democratic Senators voted against it, and only the unanimous support of the Whigs pushed it through. Northern democrats claimed: †Texas and Oregon were born in the same instant, nursed and cradlers in the same cradle, but having used Northern votes to get Texas, the peculiar friends of Texas turned and were doing all they could to strangle Oregon. † Northern Abolitionists saw the Mexican War as a means to expand slavery. In 1847 the Mass. legislature resolved that â€Å"this unconstitutional war was being waged for the triple object of expanding slavery, of strengthening the slave power, and of obtaining control of the free states. 3. Westward expansion would revive the issue of extension of slavery into the territories. Many white racists had already agreed that the Blacks could never be their intellectual, social, political or economic equals. Most white Northerners opposed allowing slaves to be brought into territories acquired from Mexico. They feared that the spread of slavery into the west would LIMIT THEIR OPPORTUNITY TO SETTLE AND FARM ON THAT LAND. NORTHERNERS OPPOSED SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES BOTH AS A LABOR SYSTEM AND THE BLACK ENSLAVED PEOPLE. By this time northern black and white people embraced the concept of the free labor system- free men and women working to earn a living and improve their lives. If the slave owners gained a foothold for their UNFREE labor system in the West then the future of the free labor system would be restricted or destroyed. 3. THE WILMOST PROVISO- During the Mexican War in 1846, Democratic congressman David Wilmot, introduced a bill into Congress to prohibit slavery in any territory we would get from Mexico. He felt that blacks would TAINT the territory and that the land should be reserved only for the white race. The Negro race already occupy enough of this fair continent†¦I would preserve for free white labor a fair country†¦where the sons of toil, of my own race and own color, can live without the disgrace which association with Negro slavery brings upon free labor. † The Proviso was never passed into law, but white Southerner’s were engaged at this attempt to stop th em from enjoying the fruits of the war by settling into the new lands. THE SOUTH SAW ANY ATTEMPT TO LIMIT THE GROWTH AS SLAVERY AS THE FIRST STEP TO ELIMINATING IT. John C. Calhoun countered with his own proposal: All territories to be regarded as common property of the states. Congress would act an agent for the states and make no laws discriminating between the states or depriving and state rights with regard to property. Any national law passed regarding slavery would violate the Const. and the doctrine of states rights. People have the Const. right to form their state governments as they wish, as long as they provide a republican form of government. The Wilmot Proviso was voted on in 1846 and the votes were strictly on section lines, causing the parties to begin to split. It passed the House but failed to come to a vote in the Senate. At the next session in Feb. ,1847, it was re passed by the House but died in the Senate. THE PROVISO STARTED A RIFT WITHIN THE PARTIES BASED ON SECTIONAL TIES. Every Northern state legislature, except one, had supported the Proviso. Every Southern state legislature opposed it. President Polk backed a compromise that would have extended the Missouri Compromise line across the Mexican cession. Many northerners backed this since they felt climate and topography would keep slavery out of most of the area naturally. BUT MANY SOUTHERNERS WERE CONCERNED ABOUT SETTING A PRECIDENT FOR FUTURE TERRITORY AND DID NOT WANT TO AGREE TO RESTRICTING SLAVERY IN ANY AREA. To prevent the spread of slavery into these areas the FREE SOIL party was formed in 1848- composed only of whites whom VIGOROUSLY OPPOSED THE EXPANSION OF SLAVERY. They feared a desecration of the land if the blacks were allowed to settle there. The Free Soil Party was hostile to the blacks and opposed emancipation. BUT it did get support from some ABOLITIONISTS who saw it as a way to stop the spread of slavery and challenge its existence. 848 the Free Soil Party ran former Pres. Martin Van Buren, who came in a distant third behind the Whig- Mexican War hero Zachary Taylor, and the Democrat- Lewis Cass. BUT 10 Free Soil Congressmen were elected. 4. The land settlement after the Mexican War and the opening of the Southwest upset the balance between slave and free states in the nation. Sept 17,1847 the Mexicans surrendered. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ratified by the Senate on March 10,1848, ceded to the US present day California and New Mexico and parts of Utah, Nevada, Arizona and Colorado. Also the southern border of Texas was set as the Rio Grande. This added over 1 million square mile to the US, added another one-third of our territorial domain, and brought us out to the Pacific. The war introduced us to some future military giants such as Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee. ELECTION OF 1848- Democratic Party split- The †Barnburners† (supported by Van Buren and New York) supported the Wilmot Proviso. The â€Å"Hunkers† were willing to compromise with the South and nominated Cass. This led to the Free Soil Party and a major split within the Democratic Party. The Whigs passed over Henry Clay and Daniel Webster and nominated war hero Taylor. Taylor was a Southern slaveholder, but Northern Whigs supported him. They stuck together long enough to get him elected. 5. CALIFORNIA- GOLD- Jan 24,1848, gold discovered at Sutter’s Mill in California. By 1849 the Gold Rush was on. People were flocking to the area seeking their fortunes. Most men did not strike it rich BUT the Gold Rush lasted for 12 years and exploded the population of the area. By 1850 the population of Calif. reached 100,000. The residents applied for admission as a FREE STATE. This would make California the 31st state and offset the balance in the Senate between North and South. The South would not agree to this arrangement. Henry Clay was called upon to make another Compromise. He attempted to write a document that would resolve the issue of slavery for all time. California would be admitted as a free state. The slave trade (not slavery) would be eliminated in DC. A stronger Fugitive Slave Law would be passed to make it easier for slave owners to get run away slaves back. New Mexico and Utah would be organized as territories, with no mention of slavery. The Compromise did not pass- Calhoun would not tolerate the admission of California without slavery, Northerners would not agree to stronger Fugitive Slave Laws, and President Taylor shocked his fellow Southerners by insisting that California be admitted as a free state with NO COMPROMISE. Taylor threatened to veto the Compromise if the House and Senate passed it. Summer of 1850 Taylor died and Millard Fillmore became President. He wanted to compromise. Senator Stephen Douglas from Ill. guided the Compromise of 1850 through Congress by actually making it two separate bills. One brought in Calif. s a free state and the other gave a stronger fugitive slave code. MANY STATES RIGHTS SUPPORTERS SAW THE SLAVE/FREE BALANCE IN CONGESS SHIFTING FURTHER NORTHWARD. 6. THE ELECTION OF 1852- The â€Å"Barnburners† returned to the party and the Democrats nominated little known Franklin Pierce from New Hampshire- leaving the Wilmot Proviso behind them. The Whigs split totally in 1852— The Northern faction supported Winfield Scott, the Southern faction supported Millard Fillmore as a compromise candidate. There was a deadlock after 52 ballots- 96% of Scott’s votes were from free states and 85% of Fillmore’s from slave states. On the 53rd ballot Scott won the nomination. The Free Soilers nominated John P. Hale opposing the Compromise of 1850 and the extension of slavery. The Whigs had split to the point that the party was declared dead by its leaders. In 1853 the Democrats controlled every Southern State and the Whigs elected only 14 of the 65 congressmen from those states. The intersection two party system was on the verge of death. 7. FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS- The Fugitive Slave Law created resentment among the Abolitionists and made slavery more emotional and personal to many. Actually the Constitution in Article IV, Section 2 stated that â€Å"any person held in service or labor in one state† who ran away to another state â€Å"shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor shall be due. † The Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 permitted slaves owners to recover slaves who escaped to other states. The escaped slaves had no rights- no right to a trial, no right to testify, and no guarantee of habeas corpus (the legal requirement that a person be brought before a court and not be imprisoned illegally). But by the 1830’ and 1840’s thousand of slaves were escaping and were being aided by the Underground Railroad. White Southerners found the laws too weak to overcome the resistance of the North to return the slaves. Many northern abolitionists actually aided the blacks escape and hid them if the law was known to be coming. Several Northern states had personal liberty laws that made it illegal for state law enforcement officials to help capture runaways. This was passed too. A US Supreme Court decision in 1842- Pigg v Pennsylvania- involved a slave owner who forcibly carried his runaway slave back home to Maryland from Penn. He was convicted in Penn. on a kidnapping charge†¦ The Supreme Court overturned the ruling and called the Penn. Law Unconstitutional. THE COURT ALSO RULED THAT THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE FUGITIVE SLAVE CLAUSE OF THE CONSTITUTION WAS A FEDERAL RESPONSIBILITY. This caused many states to start passing the personal liberty laws and provoked the South to ask for stricter control. Local black vigilante committees were formed including the League of Freedom in Boston and the Liberty Association in Chicago. These actions made the South ask for harsher laws. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was one of the harshest measures EVER passed by the US Congress. Required US marshals, deputies, and ordinary citizens to help seize runaway slaves. Those who refused or helped the runaways could be fined or imprisoned. Slave owners only had to provide legal documentation from their home state OR the testimony of white witnesses before a federal commissioner that the captive was a runaway. It was nearly impossible for a black to prove that they were legally free. Federal commissioners were paid $10 for captives returned to bondage, but only $5. f they were found to be legally free. The commissioner could deputize any citizen to aid in the capture of the runaways, and stiff fines were imposed for those that did not help. Many Northerners vowed CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE. During the time the law was in effect 332 captives were returned to slavery and 11 were released as free people. FUGITIVE SLAVES- Southern laws stipulated that the status of the mother determine d a child’s legal status- free or slave. Some states abided by the new Law without question. Others did not. A Maryland slave owner tried to regain a black woman in Phila. Who he claimed had escaped 22 years before. Since then she had 6 children, and he said they all belonged to him. Case went before a federal commissioner who ruled that they were all free. SHADRACH- 1851- Federal marshals captured a black fugitive in Boston names Shadrach. A group of blacks stormed the courthouse and freed the slave and got him to Canada via the Underground Railroad. Federal authorities brought charges against 4 blacks and 4 whites that helped in the escape under the Fugitive Slave Act. LOCAL JURIES REFUSED TO CONVICT THEM. Sept 1851 – Christiana, Pennsylvania was the scene of a little battle. Three deputy marshals appeared with a family of slave owners to recover 2 runaways from Maryland. A hostile crowd of about 25 blacks and several whites met them. One slave owner was killed and several from both sides were wounded. The runaways escaped to Canada. President Fillmore sent US Marines to Penna. to round up the members of the insurrection. 36 blacks and 5 whites were arrested and indicted for treason by a federal grand jury. The government’s case was weak, and after an acquittal in the first case, the remaining cases were dropped. ANTHONY BURNS- 1854 Burns escaped from Virginia by stowing away on a ship and landed in Boston. Burns sent his enslaved brother a letter, which was intercepted and Burns was captured. Marshals put him under guard in chains in the federal courthouse. Abolitionists tried to break in but could not, even though a deputy marshal was killed. President Franklin Pierce, a northern Democrat, sent federal troops to Boston to return Burns to Virginia. The vigilance committee tried to buy Burn’s freedom but the US Attorney refused. June 1854 thousands of Bostonians lined the street on the way to the ship that Burns was being marched to. Church bells rang, buildings and on lookers were draped in black. William Lloyd Garrison held a ceremony on July 4 in which he burned a copy of the Declaration of Independence as many looked on. A federal grand jury indicted 7 men for inciting a riot to free Burns, but no Boston jury would convict and of the men. MARGARET GARNER- Winter of 1856 Margaret Garner and 7 other slaves escaped from Kentucky across the Ohio River into Cincinnati. Their owner, Archibald Grimes pursued them along with a deputy and a posse. They cornered the eight in a small house, but they fought back Finally they were subdued. Before they could be captured Garner slit her daughter’s throat rather than have her go back to slavery. She tired to kill her two sons but was disarmed. Ohio authorities charged her with murder. By then she had returned to Kentucky and was sent with her three surviving children to Arkansas to be sold. On the journey her youngest child and 24 others drowned in a shipwreck. She was later sold at a slave market in New Orleans. Toni Morrison transformed her story into the book BELOVED. 8. THE ROCHESTER CONVENTION- 1853 – Black leaders met in Rochester, NY in 1853 for a national convention. They warned that black Americans were not ready to concede to the government policy that put more emphasis on the interest of slaveholders than people seeking freedom. They called for greater unity among the blacks and a means to find ways to improve their economic prospects. They asserted their claims to the rights of citizenship and equal protection before the law. They also expressed fear that the new wave of European immigrants would deprive poor black Northerners of their jobs. FOR THE FIRST TIME BLACK LEADERS, INCLUDING FREDERICK DOUGLASS SPOKE OF THE NEED FOR A SCHOOL TO PROVIDE TRAINING IN SKILLED TRADES AND MANUAL ARTS. They even spoke of founding a Negro museum and library. NATIVISM- White Protestants picked up the fear of more Immigrants as well, with a major movement beginning against Roman Catholics from Ireland and Germany. Some feared there was a Catholic conspiracy to take over the nation. Led to the formation of the KNOW NOTHINGS in 1854- to protect traditional American values from the dangers of immigration- The names comes from the reply members were instructed to give when asked about the party- â€Å"I KNOW NOTHING†¦Ã¢â‚¬  By 1856 there were over 1 million members in the Party, mainly in New England, Kentucky and Texas. UNCLE TOM’S CABIN- Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852- originally published in installments in an anti-slavery newspaper. Stowe was raised in a religious environment and developed a hatred of slavery. In the novel she depicts the cruelty, inhumanity and destructive impact on families by slavery. It moved Northerners to tears and made slavery more personal to readers who never considered it as a way of life. White Southerners called it a false depiction of slavery. But Stowe later published A Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin in which she cited the sources for her novel, many of which were southern newspapers. ABLEMAN V BOOTH-1859- The personal liberty laws continued to violate federal laws. This case arose when a Wisconsin abolitionist named Sherman Booth was convicted by a federal court and sent to prison for leading a raid in 1854 that had freed a fugitive. The Wisconsin Supreme Court had ruled the Fugitive Slave Law as unconstitutional and ordered Booth’s release. Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled that the Fugitive Slave law was constitutional AND ANY STATE INTERFERING WITH ITS ENFORCEMENT WAS UNCONSTITUTIONAL. Booth went back to prison. THE SUPREMACY OF FEDERAL LAW WAS UPHELD- This case was a complete REVERSAL of the traditional values of the North favoring federal supremacy and the South pushing for states rights. 9. OTHER ATTEMPTS- While many states had been passing personal liberty laws in the 1850’s, some were adopting harsher ‘black laws’ to restrict free blacks—mainly the lower Northern states and the West. Indiana adopted a provision in its 1851 Constitution that prohibited the migration of free blacks into the state. Blacks could not vote there, nor serve on juries or in the army, nor testify against whites, nor marry whites, nor go to school with whites. Iowa and Illinois had similar laws and also banned black immigration in 1851 and 1853. When Oregon was admitted to the union in 1859 she adopted a whole range of black laws, even though black migration to that state was remote. California, 10 years earlier, had not banned black migration since she feared it would delay the process of statehood, but Calif. id adopt a large range of discriminatory laws. SO, EVEN IN THE FREE STATES, THERE WAS AN ANTI-BLACK SENTIMENT. Only New England states, except Connecticut, had allowed blacks to vote equally with the whites prior to the Civil War. Attempts to institute this in other northern states FAILED in the 1850’s. Racism was so strong in the North that no party could win if it endorsed full racial equality. REMEMBER— Abolitionists and Free Soilers could hate slavery and have sympathy for fugitive slaves, BUT they could also be very prejudiced and have a commitment to RACISM.

The Characteristics of Partnership

Partnership is one of the most popular types of enterprise in Vietnam. A partnership is an unincorporated association of two or more individuals to carry on a business for profit. Many small businesses including retail, service, and professional practitioners, are organized as partnerships. Like the other types, partnership contains its own features and characteristics which help to differentiate itself from the others. First of all, in terms of the number of partners, there are no less than two partners who are joint owners of the company and carry out business.In addition to general partner, there may also be limited partners. General partner is required to be individual and will be liable to all obligations of the partnership with his entire property, while limited partner will be liable to debts of the partnership only to the extent of their capital contributed to the partnership. It should be pointed out that there are restrictions on the rights of general partners. General part ner cannot be sole proprietor or general partner of another partnership, unless otherwise agreed by remaining general partners.Besides, general partner is not allowed to act on his own behalf or on behalf of other persons in implementing the same business activities of the partnership for the benefit of himself or other. Also, general partner is not permitted to transfer a part or whole of his capital contribution to others. It is necessary to mention that a partnership will be given legal status from the issuing date of the certificate of business registration and that partnership is not entitled to issue any type of securities. The next characteristic of partnership is limited life.The life of a partnership may be established as a certain number of years by the agreement. If no such agreement is made, the death, inability to carry out specific responsibilities, bankruptcy, or the desire of a partner to withdraw automatically terminates the partnership. Every time a partner withdra ws or is added, a new partnership agreement is required if the business will continue to operate as a partnership. With proper provisions, the partnership's business may continue and the termination or withdrawal of the partnership will be a documentation issue that does not impact ongoing operations of the partnership.Unlimited liability is another feature relating to partnership. This is the prominent feature of partnership that the liability of each partner is not limited to the amount invested but his private property is also liable to pay the business obligations. Partners may be called on to use their personal assets to satisfy partnership debts when the partnership cannot meet its obligations. If one partner does not have sufficient assets to meet his/her share of the partnership's debt, the other partners can be held individually liable by the creditor requiring payment.There must be agreement between the parties concerned. This is the most important characteristics of partn ership. Without agreement partnership cannot be formed. But only competent persons are entitled to make a contract. There are some provisions contained in the partnership agreement. These are determined clearly before the commencement of business. But it differs from business to business. These documents may be written or oral. But it must be written so that disputes may be settled according to the provisions of agreement.Moreover, in terms of capital contribution, it is stated that general partner and limited partner are required to make capital contribution fully and promptly as committed. General partner who does not make capital contribution so fully and promptly that cause losses to the company must compensate for those losses. If a limited partner does not contribute capital fully and promptly as committed, deficiency in the capital contribution will be considered as his/her debt to the company; in this case, such a limited partner may be expelled from the partnership by a dec ision of the partners’ council.By contrast, with a full capital contribution, partners will be granted a certificate of capital contribution. Another characteristic that belongs to partnership is the division of profits or losses. It is not essential that all the partners must share the losses also. There may be a provision in the partnership deed that a particular partner or partners shall not bear losses. The profit is arrived at after providing for salaries to the partners and interest on capital, if agreed and stated in the agreement.That last but not least feature of partnership is about the business management. Firstly, it is specified that all general partners are entitled to act as legal representative of the partnership in carrying out business activities. Any restriction applicable to general partners in relation to conducting day-to-day business activities of the partnership will be effective to the third party if this party is informed. Secondly, general partners will agree on division of their duties in relation to management and running of the company.If a business activity is carried out by several partners, the decision will be adopted on the principle of majority. Additionally, the partnership will not be liable to any activity that is conducted by general partner and outside the scope of business activities of the partnership, unless otherwise agreed by the partners. Thirdly, the partnership can open one or several accounts with a bank. The partners’ council will appoint one partner who is required to deposit and withdraw money from those accounts.Lastly, chairman of the partners’ council, director or general director of the partnership is obligated to: manage and run the day-to-day business operation as a general partner; convene and organize meetings of the partners’ council, sign decisions of the partners’ council; make arrangement of business activities and coordination between partners, sign decisions p romulgating internal rules and other working regulations of the partnership, retain fully and honestly all accounting books, invoices and other documents in pursuant to the laws, act on behalf of the partnership in working with state authority, play the part as a plaintiff or defendant in lawsuits or other commercial disputes as well as other duties as stipulate in the company charter.

Labor Theory of Value Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Labor Theory of Value - Essay Example ffort to transform the product from start to completion. Ricardo here was very concerned about the possible difference between the natural price of labor and the market price of labor. He believed that in a market economy, even if natural price, for example, exceeds the market price, then the equilibrium will move due to the change in demand and supply market forces and therefore the natural and market price will be equal eventually. Ricardo believed that this theory is a correction of the mistakes done by Adam Smith while determining the value of products. Adam Smith believed that the value of a commodity is determined by the total of the essential and necessary payments to labor, capital and land. Smith had the idea that it was necessary to take all of the factors into account and only then will the total costs per unit can be calculated which will determine the value of the product. Contrary to Adam Smith’s theory, Ricardo believed that the indirect costs of labor should al so be accounted in the determination process of value. By indirect costs, Ricardo meant that even the labor costs of production or extraction of raw materials and machinery should be accounted for in this process. Similarly, even the labor costs of development of land to make it suitable for use should be considered if the true value of a product is to be determined. David Ricardo believed that labor is the sole source of value addition to a product or service, and therefore all other factors and costs are either not necessary to add or are themselves dependent upon the value of the product to be calculated. His emphasis on the labor to be the sole and prominent input can also be realized on the fact that his theory of competitive advantage is based on the assumption that only labor exists as the factor of production. Since the proposal of this theory from David Ricardo, several economists have passed on their opinions over the credibility of the labor theory of value. Some economis ts have proposed slight adjustments to this theory by adding up some new elements in the determination of the true value which were ignored by Ricardo, but they have regarded this theory as a decent theory. On the other hand, several economists have heavily criticized the labor value of theory believing that the theory fails to address the issues of the contemporary world and hence it is in no way a practical theory. Limitations Some economists have argued that only the involvement of labor costs as the determinant of value of products and services is not good enough and that several dynamic aspects have been ignored. The first argument presented by the economists and critics is that some production methods are capital intensive and therefore a majority of costs and value is added by the work done by the machinery. These costs cannot be left out and therefore this proves to be ignorance on part of Ricardo. Even if the labor costs of manufacturing that machinery are taken into accoun t, even then the value of the firm can

Phil Company Limited Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Phil Company Limited - Essay Example The company belongs to the Electronics and Information technology industry. Currently, the company is owned by Phil Samuel, Dick Harry, and other eight partners. The company uses cutting edge technology in designing and manufacturing electronic products like television sets, microwaves, radios, computer hardware and cell phones. Phil has been in the electronic manufacturing industry for the last four years. Improved market share in both the domestic and international consumer environments is as a result of the company's performance and experience in the manufacturing process. Phil manufactures electronics based on orders placed by retailers in the market. The company’s total employee population stands at 2000, both in the US and Jamaican manufacturing sites. Phil’s Mission Statement Phil’s vision is to become the leading manufacturer and marketer of electronic products both in the US and all over the world. We strive to respond to the market demands and consumers ’ needs by adjusting appropriately to the technological dynamics prevailing in the industry. We are aiming at responding to consumers’ needs by considering the dynamics and fluctuations in the economic sector. The company’s financial objectives are to maximize profits, optimize the net worth, increase share value and plough back the earnings into initiating wealth growth. Phil works towards providing excellent and outstanding services in terms of product and service qualities. The company will stick to the ethical code of conduct at all times and strive to perform their social responsibilities in one heart (Philip & Michael, 2009). Potential International Market Africa is one of the potential foreign markets for the company’s electronic products. In the recent past, African countries have come to embrace information technology products in their markets. International market research statistics shows that Africa is the leading market of electronic products in the world. In addition, the political systems in the continent have improved over the past years. Most nations in Africa have a functioning democratic government. Therefore, this market has a favorable political climate. African countries are highly populated. Therefore, the high population signifies a potentially large market for the company’s products. Moreover, African nations are at the stage of discovering and mining their natural resources like oil and other minerals. This has improved their macro-economic aspects of living standards and employment rates. Therefore, a substantial percentage of the continent’s population has a high purchasing power. These factors make the continent a potential market segment for the company’s products (Philip & Michael, 2009). Marketing Plan Audience The general public and the shareholders are the potential audiences for the company’s marketing plan. Since the company belongs to 10 individuals, it would be approp riate to supplement a marketing plan to  these stakeholders. In addition, government authorities and financial institutions are the other potential audience of the marketing plan. All these three audiences have different needs concerning the contents of the marketing plan. The disparity in their needs is as a result of the different roles played by the three parties during the implementation of the plan. In this case, the ten shareholders need to evaluate the feasibility of the identified segment in terms of profits from the market (Dennis, 2010). In addition, the shareholders want to

Bribery and Serving Public Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Bribery and Serving Public - Essay Example We hear these types of incidences almost daily in our lives. All of these acts are crimes and deemed as bribery cases. Bribery is basically a crime which is done by giving any benefit to the other party for changing the outcomes of the result. The term benefit is a very broad term and it could be anything from money to a simple favor. According to the Black's law dictionary, bribery is the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions as an official or other person in discharge of a public or legal duty. Bribery is basically a reward or rewards, which is given to an individual or group to change the decision in favor of the person who is giving the bribe. Generally, the following rewards are given for not being loyal and just: The issue of bribery is not only associated with the public sector organizations but also with private sector organizations - even in the NGOs that come in the market with a commitment to serve the people without any monetary benefits. Bribery is illegal in many countries including the United Kingdom and United States. It is considered an unethical act and a form of political corruption that hinders the success and prosperity of a nation. Another shameful form of bribery exists in the field of medicine - a field that serves to save human lives without any discrimination and unjust behavior. In this form of bribery, pharmaceutical corporations reward doctors for heavy subscription of their drugs to their patients, and in reward the doctors get lucrative gifts in various forms. The US government has already taken several steps to cope with this form of bribery. The American Medical Association (AMA) has already published a set of ethical guidelines for the industry that describes the list of acceptable gifts that can be given to the doctors as rewards. In addition, dentists are also the part of this bribery issue; they receive samples of home dental care products such as tooth cleaning gels. Transparency International Reports (Health) The transparency international reports the types of corruption in health. According to the organization, regulators, payers, health care providers, suppliers and consumers face a complex mix of incentives that can lead to corruption. Forms of corruption in the health sector include: Embezzlement and theft from the health budget or user-fee revenue. This can occur at central or local government level or at the point of allocation to a particular health authority or health centre. Medicines and medical supplies or equipment may be stolen for personal use, use in private practice or resale. Corruption in procurement. Engaging in collusion, bribes and kickbacks in procurement results in overpayment for goods and contracted services, or in failure to enforce contractual standards for quality. In addition, hospital spending may include large investments in building construction and purchase of expensive technologies, areas of procurement that are particularly vulnerable to corruption. Corruption in payment systems. Corrupt practices include waiving fees or falsifying insurance documents for

Account for Japans decision to go to war against the United States in Essay

Account for Japans decision to go to war against the United States in 1941 - Essay Example Attempts to successfully negotiate a ceasefire failed primarily on account of Japan’s refusal to return conquered territory (Iinkai 1973, 111). As the Second World War progressed, Japanese leaders began to feel increasingly vulnerable and particularly isolated (Bess 2008, 27). From the Japanese perspective the Soviet Union was a long and enduring enemy so that by 1936 Japan had subscribed to an anti-Communist pact with Germany and Italy. Fortifying the anti-Communist and anti-Soviet stance, Japanese military factors had conflict with the Soviet factions on Korea’s border with the Soviet Union in 1938. A larger battle would follow between the two in 1939 at Nomonhan near the border between Mongolia and Manchuria. The latter was a region in China conquered by Japan. The Soviets defeated the Japanese in this later battle and forcing Japan to conclude a non-aggression truce with the Soviets having learned that Germany had entered into a similar agreement with the Soviets. The knowledge that Germany had engaged a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union would be a turning point for Japan. In the latter stages of the 1930s Japan had commenced cooperation strategies with Nazi Germany, assuming that the two nations would jointly attack the Soviet Union and divide that country’s wealth between them (Duiker and Spielvogel 2006, 696). Japan came to the realization that it could not take the Soviet Union on its own and would inevitably have to find another method for obtaining its wealth. Attention then turned to Southeast Asia. This would mean a potential war with the Europe over its colonies in the area and the US who had already expressed disapproval of Japan’s attack on China, particularly following an attack on a US naval ship stationed in China (Duiker and Spielvogel 2006, 696). German victories in Europe in 1940 however, particularly the

Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Process - Essay Example Picking the correct restaurant is the first step in a dining program in Korea. There are different speciality restaurants in Korea; all have different types of foods and serving habits. Check the restaurant’s name or advertisements before entering the restaurant. The selection of the hotel/restaurant must be taken only based on your eating habits. Most of the restaurants have their names indicating their speciality of foods serving there. It may be a difficult decision for you; but select the restaurant properly; otherwise you will not get the proper food which you are looking for and will be disappointed later. After selecting the hotel/restaurant, the second step is making sure that you order only one or two kinds of food. This is because of the fact that the Koreans serve wide variety of foods even if you order only one or two kinds of foods. Most of the single orders accompanied with more than ten kinds of appetizers to everyone; which means if you order more things, the varieties of foods you are getting will be more than what you can consume. This will result in lot of wastages in food items you purchased. Third, order only one meal less than what you actually require. This is because the size or volume of the food will be more that what you have anticipated. It is not possible for a single person to eat all the foods provided for a single order. So if your group consist of four members, order only for three which will be more than enough. If your group consist of eight members, order only for 6 members. Same way you can plan the number of foods based on the number of members in your group. You are not wasting any foods and at the same time you can save a substantial amount of money also by ordering less number of foods. To conclude, while taking foods in Korea, you have to select the proper restaurant first based on your choice of food; then order

Stochastic Finance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Stochastic Finance - Assignment Example (a). Using Yahoo finance I settled on three companies; AAC Holdings, Inc., 1347 Capital Corp. and Alexco Resource Corp traded at NYSE, NASQAD and AMEX respectively and obtained daily closing stock prices for each company for six consecutive weeks commencing 13th April 2015 to 22nd May 2015. (see excel calculations) (b). The table in the appendix 1 also shows the results of the calculation for the logarithmic daily changes in the closing stock price for each of the three companies for six consecutive weeks. The formula; The curve shown in the graph above clearly indicates the performance in the stock markets. The daily closing stock prices for AAC Holdings, Inc, a company in the NYSE markets tends to be stable by showing a regular trend in growth over the first few weeks. The growth rate however slows down in the last weeks. As compared to the scenario in AAC Holdings, Inc, the trend here is a steady upward growth till the end. This pattern in growth however cannot be reliably adopted to predict the future state of the stock price for 1347 Capital corp. Investors without proper analysis can easily be lured to invest in such stocks since they promise high level of returns in a short time but can also drop in value drastically. Alexco Resource Corp though in a different stock market (AMEX) has the lowest stock prices with an average of$ 0.41. At this price Investors are attracted to invest but only when the trend in growth is consistent. This case proves the same as the stock prices keep on going up for the entire six week period. Inflation weakens the value of the local currency against the foreign currency in other words foreign exchange (Ross, S. 2003). A general rise in prices for most of the products means that the input prices for production of various goods and services are rising. In this case market analysts and fund managers will always consider the net impact on the margin of the entity that they are tracking. Sometimes

Write up a report based on Case StudyStrategy Formulation at Zanzibar Study

Write up a report based on StudyStrategy Formulation at Zanzibar - Case Study Example The affluent are attracted by the magic of the word Zanzibar. The place was previously referred to as Zanj-el-Barr or the land of the blacks. The region has been a colony for many times in the past firstly for the fact that it acted as a stopover destination for the ships travelling to India and due to fact that the country had a rich variety of spices. The spices are what contributed to centuries old reputation of the region. The spices that once upon a time made the archipelago famous are Cloves, Cardamom, Saffron, Curry, black pepper etc. However the spices are no longer the main source of living and income generating activity of the region and the tourism business is now the main economic activity. In the following pages the discu8ssion is focussed on the SWOT analysis of the region and strategies that can be adopted in order to promote Zanzibar as a tourist destination. The archipelago of Zanzibar has been famous for centuries for the spices and an important stopover for the trade routes. The region was first used as a trade destination by the Persians. These were followed by the Arabs who were eager to establish trade relations between the African countries and the gulf (Wilson, 2012). The Arabs were succeeded by the Portuguese in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese were in turn followed by the Omanis and who in turn were followed by the Britishers. The British saw the region as the perfect stop for their ships before they visited India (Hartley, 2003). So, over the years Zanzibar has seen a blending of different cultures and ethnic groups. The culture of Zanzibar thus reflects a mix of Swahilis along with the Arabs, Indians and the Europeans (McIntyre and McIntyre, 2013). This mixing of culture is also reflected in the music of the region. However the archipelago has lost to the competition in the spices industry from India which is much more industrious, productive and operates an efficient

Technology and innovation management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Technology and innovation management - Essay Example The focus of any project must focus on the usability of the product (Crawford 2001). The product must be able to be used in the easiest way possible. This means that the products ought to incorporate all the attributes of a good product in a given category. Therefore, the product that the company develops ought to meet the conventionality of the user market. However, in order for the product to have a competitive advantage over the competitors, it ought to be designed in a manner that distinguishes it from the other products. The products ought to be designed in a manner that it accords the user more convenience than the rest of the products in the market. Looking at the drills made by Black and Decker Corporation it is evident that they have a constant drive towards the provision of maximum comfort and convenience to the user. The drills are made in such a manner that they are capable of offering the conventional usability of any product but at a more improved scale. The drills are high performance tools. However, they are more convenient to use. The lack of a cord means that they are the most desired tools to be used on the remote construction sites. The drillers can be used in the places that do not have the power. The convenience of being able to work even after the power is out. This made the drills develop an edge over the peers. The projects on the creation of the drillers and the screwdrivers follow the tenets of good project management that are postulated in the MIT report. The company focused on the production of a product that is comparatively better than the rest in the market. In the process of making the design of the product, the company focused on the creation of a unique product that would give it the desired level of competitive advantage. The cordless drills and drivers were the first ones in the market. The products not only provided the company

Privacy And Security Concerns Regarding Health Information Essay Example for Free

Privacy And Security Concerns Regarding Health Information Essay Case 4.8 – E-mail Goes Astray Primarily, the technician is the one responsible for the breach in confidentiality because he was the one who sent out the e-mails. Moreover, he did not seek instructions from Kaiser Permanente regarding the backlogged e-mails. Kaiser Permanente hired the technician to upgrade their system. Therefore, tasks other than doing upgrades should be consulted to the company. The technician should have asked whether the accumulated e-mails in the system should be sent out, and he should have asked what to do with them. However, Kaiser Permanente is partly responsible for the breach, because first and foremost, since they hold millions of private information, they should have made sure that that information would not be compromised. They should have made their system secure and only accessible to Kaiser Permanente personnel. Yes, situations like this discourage subscribers in using the system of Kaiser Permanente. However, the services that Kaiser Permanente offer is of great value and subscribers will not easily discontinue their subscription. But Kaiser Permanente has to ensure their subscribers that this will not happen in the future by informing them what caused the breach and reassuring them that upgrades are being done to improve the security of the system and the privacy of their information. The most important thing to do here is to be honest and at the same time make great efforts to secure the system of the company. Case 4.17 – Patient’s Files Used for Obscene Calls Definitely, background checks should be conducted before hiring new employees because this would ensure the safety of the clients, especially in the health care industry. Employers should be granted access to criminal records for them to be able to identify the extent of the crime that ex-convicts have committed. Cases such as child rape and indecent assault is a serious crime that should not be disregarded when hiring employees, especially when the job requires dealing with other people, children, etc. such as in the health care institution. Former employees who are given access to system information that are confidential, such as passwords, etc. should be screened out from the system. In other words, once an employee is not connected with the institution anymore, his access to the system should be deleted or reset. In this case, the system of the health care institution is at fault because it failed to keep the information confidential and secure. In this case, the hospital is accountable for the actions of the technician. Primarily because they hired an employee without doing background checks, they do not monitor the system, wherein they could have detected that calls were being made and the information of the clients were being accessed, and the system is not 100 % secure. Case 4.44 – University Tightens Computer Security Because of the wide range of subscribers in university medical centers information systems, it becomes vulnerable to hackers. In this case, they hacked into the system and used it to send hundreds of advertisements in their e-mails. The hackers wanted to target the significant number of subscribers in the system. However, the information within the system is not precisely the target of the breach. It is not entirely the medical center’s fault. This is because hackers do what they do. They find ways to get into the system even if security measures were set-up to avoid breaching the security of an information system. Therefore, even if the system is secure, hackers will really find a way to get into the system. The medical center’s fault was that they were not able to detect that the system was being hacked. They should have upgrades in the system, which will be used in monitoring the system and alarming when hackers breach the system.

Driver For Change In Bbc Resources Management Essay

Driver For Change In Bbc Resources Management Essay Evaluate the importance of business processes in delivering outcomes based upon business goals and objectives P1.1 Describe the structure and culture of an organisation and evaluate the inter-relationships between the different processes and functions of an organisation P1.2 Identify the mission, aims and objectives of an organisation and analyse the effect of these on the structure and culture of the organisation. P1.3 Define the methodology to be used to map processes to the organisations objectives and functions and evaluate the output of the process and analyse quality gateways Learning Outcome 2: Develop plans for their areas of responsibility and implement operational plans P2.1 Develop plans which promote goals and objectives for own area of responsibility and ensure plans are consistent with legal, regulatory and ethical requirements P2.2 Use objectives which are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-based to align people and other resources in an effective and efficient way. P2.3 Prepare and agree implementation plans which translate strategic targets into practical efficient and effective actions. P2.4 Manage work activities to prevent ineffective and inefficient deviations from the operational plan through effective monitoring and control P2.5 Implement appropriate systems to achieve objectives and goals of the plan in the most effective and efficient way, on time and to budget and to meet organisational standards of quality. Learning Outcome 3: Design and monitor appropriate systems to ensure quality of product and services P3.1 Define the resources, tools and systems required to support the business process. P3.2 Define and implement quality audit systems/practice to manage and monitor quality to standards specified by the organisation and process operated. P3.3 Embed a quality culture to ensure continuous monitoring and development of the process. Learning Outcome 4: Manage health and safety in the workplace. P4.1 Carry out risk assessments as required by legislation, regulation and organisational requirements and ensure appropriate action is taken. P4.2 Identify health and safety regulations and legislation applicable in specific work situations and ensure these are correctly and effectively applied P4.3 Systematically review organisational health and safety policies and procedures in order to ensure they are effective and that they comply with the appropriate legislation and regulations P4.4 Ensure practical application of health and safety policies and procedures in the workplace. Learning Outcome 5: Improve organisational performance. P5.1 Monitor systems and work activities and identifyproblems and opportunities for improvement P5.2 Recommend improvements which align with the organisations objectives and goals and which result in a reduction in the variation between what customers and other stakeholders want and what products, processes and services deliver. P5.3 Identify the wider implications of proposed changes within the organisation P5.4 Plan, implement and evaluate changes within an organisation Please go through the case below and attempt tasks in the assignment. DRIVER for change in BBC resources Background. London Operations, part BBC Resources Ltd, provides studio, outside broadcast and post production facilities to customers both within and outside the BBC. It was hemorrhaging money at the rate of over  £ 7 million (c. $ 10 million) a year. It was overstaffed and locked into inefficient, outmoded work practices. Under Producers Choice, it was being increasingly ignored by BBC program makers who were going outside the corporation to obtain better terms for production facilities. Under political pressure, the Corporation was so concerned that it was considering selling off all or part of BBC Resources. The companys management required insight and plans to determine whether Resources Ltd could become competitive, and how it could rapidly implement the changes needed to transform the business from its current loss-making situation . Resources management carried out a program of improvement that began with a review of the London Operations to assess current performance, recomended the necessary steps to achieve profitability and to plan and implement the changes. A rigorous analysis of key drivers and levers for cost and performance was carried out. Core processess were identified and mapped and an approach to improvement was adopted, bringing together changes in people, technology and processes. Delivery and Support processes were appraised and simplified, current rules and assumptions governing these processess were challenged and opportunities for radical re-engineering highlighted. The review suggested ways in which the situation could be completly turned around. Resources management used these finidngs to support its case that the facilities should be kept in public ownership, and began a program of implementation of its recomendations to make the operations viable. The approach The approach taken was based around the DRIVER methodology The review suggested a number of improvements, for example reduced process waste, more efficient staffing, supplier rationalisation, improved seasonal management of facilities and customer billing accuracy. The recomendations were supported by rigorous benchmarking exercise within the industry. The review highlighted the many ways of doing business had simply grown up and turned into traditions. the approach taken showed that it was often valid to take a complete fresh look at the way work could be undertaken. This was all the more important since in some of London Operations, major jobs came round on a regular basis, and if a big saving could be made on Wimbledon coverage for example, that saving would be repeated in future years. The opportunities to improve were clear. reduced staffing, modified work practices and a general focus by the managers on the bottom line. Maintaining the new ways of working. One of the organisations key concern was that, although the proposals might be implemented initially, there would be gradual or indeed not so gradual return to old ways with inefficiencies returning and staffing levels rising again, especially through the employment of outside freelance staff. To combat this, a management structure was created that supported the new processess, defined the necessary role and responsibilities to successfully operate the new processes and develop a framework of balanced performance measures, to ensure that the overall performance of London Operations was visible to senior managers. As improvements and changes were implemented and as the senior management became more aware of commercial pressures it was recongnised that, for these changes to have any durability and long lasting impact on the business, it was vitally important that everyone in the organisation understood the part that they had to play in helping run the business around. Furthermore the management team needed to have a clear understanding of what they were doing, why there were doing it and how they needed to do it. To this end the senior management team indentified the need to understand and further develop the mission and vision for the business. Then to be able to cascade these down through the organisation, focussed around a small number of factors that were deemed critical to the achievement of the mission and vision. Mission and Vision Vision Turning Ideas into Reality Mission We will enrich the BBC creatively and financially by helping customers create the sounds of vision of the future. Relied upon for innovation, efficiency and service working with us will be inspirational and fun. Define the project Review the business baseline Identify Opportunities Verify the Opportunities Evaluate and plan implementation Review and Report (Figure C 1.0) DRIVER Methodology Page 02 of 06 Case Study / Scenario Defining measurable Objectives From the mission statement the key words were identified to form the basis for the development of strategic frame work: CASH , CREATIVITY , INNOVATION , SERVICE , EFFICIENCY Using these key words eight factors critical to the achievement of the mission were identified. 1. Skilled, Motivated and Flexible people. 2. Key talent that is industry recognised. 3. Focussed investment in products and services. 4. Profitable revenue growth. 5. Efficent and effective processess. 6. Effective customer relationships. 7. Strong leadership, clarity of direction and cooperation. 8. Industry recognised customer base. To help the business to remain focussed on the achievement of the eight critical factors a set of guiding principles were defined. (Figure C 2.0) Through a series of senior management workshops, the eight factors were further developed to indentify their key activities and performance measures. These performance indicators were then arranged into a balanced set of measures and appropriate targets for the comming year defined for each Sharing S . We will share in the sucess of our business. . Our sucess will be built on team work and cooperation. . We will develop mutually profitable partnerships with our customers based on trust. . Our sucess will be built on team work and cooperation. Partnerships P Equal Opportunities E . We will promote our role as an Equal Opportunity employer to all communities . We encourage open and regular communication throughout the business. Communication C Customer Customer satisfaction Survey Results. No. of Customer Complaints Resolved. Post Contract Review Results. Commendations Resulting in Awards. Strength of Cutomer Relationship. Market Profile Staff Utilisation Facilities Utilisation Quotation Turn-around Time Invoices Issued within 5 Days Processes Finance Return on Sales Return on Capital Employed Market Share external and internal Variance from Cash Flow Budget Performance to Investment Budget Staff Satisfaction survey Results % of staff Within Appraisal Process Turnover of Key Talent Number of Identified Leaders Within a Leadership development programme. Staff Turnover. Absence Rate People Figure C 3.0 Balanced Scorecard of Measures To assist in the development of these key activities, the senior management team used a CSF planning document. ( Figure C 4.0). One planning sheet is detailed for every measure for each CSF. The CSF itself defines what must be achieved. In the example Resources Must have skilled, motiovated and Flexible People. This is linked to one of the performance measures (KPI) and an appropriate description of what that KPI represents is provided. In addition the current performance is given, where applicable, together with its target. The bottom section of the document identifies how the KPI will be achieved. By doing this the business identifies the lower level of specific actions that should be held to achieve the specific sucess factor. Each of these actions is allocated an owner and a date for completion. CSF 1 We must have skilled, motivated and flexible people. Owner A.N. Other. No. KPI Definition Current Measure Target Due Date 1 June 2001 50% N/A Overall staff rating against satisfaction/motivation index Staff satisfaction survey results No. KPI No. Activity Current Measure Driver Measure Resp 1 1 Compile London Operations specific staff survey which asks staff to identify 3 priority issues that motivate/demotivate the. Ask staff to rate how well the business delivers on these issues. AN Other May Staff Satisfaction 1 2 Identify action plan to address these issues. Identify those issues within Studios, OBs and Post Production control and those outside our direct control AN Other July Staff Satisfaction 1 3 Communicate survey results and intended actions. AN Other August Staff Satisfaction 1 4 Implement communication plan to improve staff understanding about the direction of RES Ltd, recognise peoples value, encourages a sense of identity. AN Other July 1 Agree dates for follow up audit. AN Other August The activities that will take place to address the identified performance gaps. Figure C 4.0 CSF Planning document As the whats are cascaded down the hows, responsibility is likely to be cascaded down to the most appropriate level within the organisation. For example, The KPI is owned by a member of the senior management team, as are the 4 identified actions. However, these 4 actions, if cascaded to the next level of detail, would become the whats that would require their own series of hows to be defined and probably be owned functionally by a department or business unit. Implementation of these process allowed for a link to be created from the highest level of critical sucess factor right down to individual or team obejctives and goals. Furthermore it provides a means of feedback through the chain to the CSFs and enables performance to be monitored and aligned to corporate objectives. Achivemenets The project helped London Operations to dramatically enhance its understanding of the business and its performance and identified opportunities to reduce costs by nearly 20%, while maintaining levels o f customer satisfaction and market share. Furthermore the approach has led to these changes being locked into the future working of the business. Many attitutes have changed and barriers broken down to secure the future of Resources Ltd. The schedule for implementation was less than 18 months and the transformation in operations has made Resources Ltd. an attractive commercial proposition. Satisfaction with the approach towards the project can be measured by a number of yard sticks. BBC managers have acknowledged that the savings proposed are far greater than they had anticipated, even in their optimistic moments. One senior BBC manager commented that as a rule of thumb a restructuting exercise costing  £12 million (c. $ 18 m) would be expected to yield savings of around  £6 Millions (c. $9 m) a year in other words it should pay for itself within 2 years. The  £12 million (c. $18 m) resturctuting for London Operations, however, is set to impact the bottom line by over  £ 13 million (c. $20m) per year. This reflects the innovative and creative way in which the project was progressed. Direct feedback has been very positive. The project team were praised particulalry for their interpersonel skills in working with and involving staff, and for the continiously high levels of communications with management on the progress of the work. Senior management recognised and appreciated the Hardsoft approach that blends a rigorous establishment of the hard facts of the situation with a positive effort to communicate details to staff, involve them in the changes and generally build good relationships. Resources staff viewed these as the most inclusive project they had experienced. managers regarded the project as creative, innovative and practical, acheieving the support of employees and achieving benefits that other approaches had failed to do. Tasks Involved in respect to the Case Study / Scenario and Possible Evidence The case study is of BBC resources Limited, a group company of BBC Limited. BBC Resources is in the business of providing studio services to its customers, including BBC itself. BBC Resources has gone through a bad phase where it made losses, but now it seems to have turned around. Case study captures how the company went around turning its fortunes. With reference to the case study, carry out following tasks: Task 1: Describe the culture and structure of BBC resource before the turn around? How did it re-define its mission and objectives? Are these objectives SMART? What changes were made in the structure and culture? How did it go about identifying the processes which need to be worked upon to achieve its goals/objectives? Task 2: Describe the plan which BBC resources made to achieve its goals? How did it go about implementing the plan? How did it decide to monitor and control the plan? Task 3: What resources and tools did BBC Resources use to support the business processes? How did they monitor the quality of processes? What did they do to embed the quality culture? Task 4: What health and safety regulations are applicable to BBC Resources as per UK laws? What are the likely safety risks BBC resources need to worry about? What would you advise BBC Resources to ensure health and safety of its employees given the nature of the business? Task 5: What systems/processes has BBC Resources put in place to identify problems and opportunities for improvement? What were the outcomes of changes that BBC resources implemented? How do you evaluate the outcomes of what BBC Resources has already done for improvement? What are some of the un-anticipated implications of changes that BBC Resources introduced? What are some of the improvements that you would recommend to BBC resources? Grading Criterias MERIT DESCRIPTORS M1. Identify and apply strategies to find appropriate solutions M1.1 Effective judgements have been made M1.2 Complex problems with more than one variable have been explored M1.3 An effective approach to study and research has been applied M2. Select/ design and apply/ appropriate methods/ techniques M2.1 A range of methods and techniques have been applied M2.2 The selection of methods and techniques/ sources has been justified M2.3 Complex information/ data has been synthesized and processed M3. Present and communicate appropriate findings M3.1 The appropriate structure and approach has been used M3.2 Coherent, logical development of principles/ concepts for the intended audience M3.3 The communication is appropriate for familiar and unfamiliar audiences and appropriate media have been used  · Word Process the assignment using font Calibri, size 11 points and convert the same to PDF document before submission.  · Zero percentage (0%) Plagiarism is allowed in your work, however referenced material should be appropriately quoted.  · Use the Harvard Referencing System for referencing and provide complete bibliography.  · Complete the title page and sign the statement of authenticity in your work submission.  · Use Business Report format while creating your case portfolio.  · Do not wait for the last date to submit your work, if you fail to submit in time, no extension would be provided. Important Instructions. Other Notes (if any) Grading Criterias DISTINCTION DESCRIPTORS D1. Use critical reflection to evaluate own work and justify valid conclusion D1.1 Conclusion have been arrived at through synthesis of ideas and have been justified D1.2 The validity of results has been evaluated using defined criteria D1.3 Realistic improvement have been proposed against defined characteristics for success D2. Take responsibility for managing and organising activities D2.1 Autonomy/ independence has been demonstrated D2.2 Substantial activities, projects or investigation have been planned, managed and organised D2.3 The important of interdependence has been recognised and achieved D3. Demonstrate convergent/ lateral/ creative thinking D3.1 Ideas have been generated and decisions taken D3.2 Self evaluation has taken place D3.3 Convergent and lateral thinking have been applied